References

fitter_intro.htm
Image taken from Diane B. Paul's Controlling Human Heredity: 1865 to the Present (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, Inc., 1995, p. 12). Paul's citation reads: Eugenics Building, Kansas Free Fair, 1929. Courtesy of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

fitter_nuts.htm
Image and text from C. M. Goethe's War Profits ... and Better Babies (Sacramento: The Keystone Press, 1946, p. 56).

fitter_corn.htm
Image and text taken from Paul Popenoe's and Roswell Hill Johnson's Applied Eugenics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1918, 1933, p. 11).

fitter_pigs.htm
Image taken from Marshall J. Gauvin's The Illustrated Story of Evolution (New York: Peter Eckler Publishing Company, 1921, p. 110).

fitter_cows.htm
Image taken from Elliot R. Downing's Elementary Eugenics: A Revision of The Third and Fourth Generation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1928, p. 5).

fitter_breed.htm
Statements that compared human mating with animal breeding were common among eugenicists, particularly in the years up to 1924. See, for instance, Charles Davenport's Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, in which he writes: "...human matings could be placed upon the same high plane as that of horse breeding." Quoted in Daniel J. Kevles' In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985, 1995, p. 48). See also, Elliot R. Downing's Elementary Eugenics: A Revision of The Third and Fourth Generation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1928, p. 116): "Any farmer would promptly predict the fate of a herd of cattle in which the scrub stock was allowed to breed faster than the predigreed stock. Yet there is no doubt that in civilized countries large families are the rule among the undesireable elements and the exception in the best stock."

fitter_romanhoff.htm
Image taken from Elliot R. Downing's Elementary Eugenics: A Revision of The Third and Fourth Generation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1928, p. 104).

fitter_buddha.htm
Images taken from Francis Graham Crookshank's The Mongol in Our Midst: A Study of Man and His Three Faces (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Ltd., 1931).

fitter_negro.htm
Images taken from Francis Graham Crookshank's The Mongol in Our Midst: A Study of Man and His Three Faces (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Ltd., 1931).

fitter_proverb.htm
Taken from Eugenic Pamphlets, No. 80 (Sacramento: Successor to Eugenics Society of Northern California, January 1951, p. 22).

fitter_imbecile.htm
Images taken from Francis Graham Crookshank's The Mongol in Our Midst: A Study of Man and His Three Faces (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Ltd., 1931).

fitter_pie.htm
Taken from C. M. Goethe's War Profits ... and Better Babies (Sacramento: The Keystone Press, 1946, p. 55). Goethe did not cite this image but probably took it from one of the Eugenics Pamphlets published by the Eugenics Society of Northern California, where it appeared in almost every issue.

fitter_mutant1.htm
Images taken from Robert C. Cook's and Barbara S. Burks' How Heredity Builds Our Lives (Washington, D.C.: American Genetic Association, 1946, p. 49)

fitter_matters.htm
Despite the common interpretation of eugenicists as being interested only in the role of heredity, environmental influences were often of key concern. For instance, Elliot R. Downing's Elementary Eugenics: A Revision of The Third and Fourth Generation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1928) devotes an entire chapter to acquired characteristics. Likewise, the International Eugenics Congresses and the National Conferences on Race Betterment present papers on issues such as vereneal diseases, alcoholism, and parasites.

fitter_twins.htm
Image and text taken from Paul Popenoe's and Roswell Hill Johnson's Applied Eugenics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1918, 1933, p. 74).

fitter_danger.htm
Despite the common interpretation of eugenicists as being interested only in the role of heredity, environmental influences were often of key concern. For instance, Elliot R. Downing's Elementary Eugenics: A Revision of The Third and Fourth Generation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1928) devotes an entire chapter to acquired characteristics. Likewise, the International Eugenics Congresses and the National Conferences on Race Betterment present papers on issues such as vereneal diseases, alcoholism, and parasites.

fitter_pellagra.htm
Image and part of the text taken from Victor C. Vaughan's "General Individual Hygiene: The Importance of Frequent and Thouough Medical Examinations of the Well," in The Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 143).

fitter_hookworm.htm
Image taken from Victor C. Vaughan's "General Individual Hygiene: The Importance of Frequent and Thouough Medical Examinations of the Well," in Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 140).

fitter_class.htm
Image and part of the text taken from Victor C. Vaughan's "General Individual Hygiene: The Importance of Frequent and Thouough Medical Examinations of the Well," in Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 140).

fitter_booze.htm
Images taken from Arthur Hunter's "Alcohol and Tobacco: The Effect of Alcohol on Longevity," in The Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 216, 221).

fitter_Syphilis.htm
Images taken from J. H. Kellogg's "The Social Evil: A Special Address to Women -- Illustrated by Stereopticon," in The Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 300). Text borrows directly from Vernon Lyman Kellogg's "Eugenics and Militarism," presented at the First International Eugenics Congress, 1912.

fitter_choose.htm
Issues over mating were often central to Fitter Family Exhibits. One also finds statements concerning mate selection at the International Eugenics Congresses and the National Conferences on Race Betterment.

fitter_begets.htm
Religious imagry was often found in eugenics literature. This may reflect the rhetoric of the day or, as Donald Pickens suggests in Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968), the eugenics movement was a product of Progressive social attitudes prominent after the turn of the twentieth century.

fitter_darwin.htm
Image taken from Elliot R. Downing's Elementary Eugenics: A Revision of The Third and Fourth Generation (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1928, p. 7). Downing and many other authors of eugenics textbooks (for instance, Popenoe) use analogous evidence such as is found in the text.

fitter_plato.htm
Text taken from C. M. Goethe's War Profits ... and Better Babies (Sacramento: The Keystone Press, 1946, p. 37).

fitter_mnbaby.htm
Image taken from F. O. Clements' "Venereal Disease: A Special Address to Men," in The Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 304).

fitter_awards.htm
Images taken from Luther S. West's "The Practical Application of Eugenic Principles," in The Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference, January 2-6, 1928 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1928, pp. 111-112).

fitter_winners.htm
Image and text taken from William H. Hastings' "Physical and Mental Perfection Contests: School Children," in The Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8-12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: The Race Betterment Foundation, 1914, p. 606).